Traits

A trait describes an abstract interface that types can implement. This interface consists of associated items, which come in three varieties:

• functions
• types
• constants

All traits define an implicit type parameter Self that refers to "the type that is implementing this interface". Traits may also contain additional type parameters. These type parameters (including Self) may be constrained by other traits and so forth as usual.

Traits are implemented for specific types through separate implementations.

Associated functions and methods

Associated functions whose first parameter is named self are called methods and may be invoked using . notation (e.g., x.foo()) as well as the usual function call notation (foo(x)).

Consider the following trait:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# type Surface = i32;
# type BoundingBox = i32;
trait Shape {
    fn draw(&self, Surface);
    fn bounding_box(&self) -> BoundingBox;
}
#}

This defines a trait with two methods. All values that have implementations of this trait in scope can have their draw and bounding_box methods called, using value.bounding_box() syntax. Note that &self is short for self: &Self, and similarly, self is short for self: Self and &mut self is short for self: &mut Self.

Traits can include default implementations of methods, as in:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Foo {
    fn bar(&self);
    fn baz(&self) { println!("We called baz."); }
}
#}

Here the baz method has a default implementation, so types that implement Foo need only implement bar. It is also possible for implementing types to override a method that has a default implementation.

Type parameters can be specified for a trait to make it generic. These appear after the trait name, using the same syntax used in generic functions.

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Seq<T> {
    fn len(&self) -> u32;
    fn elt_at(&self, n: u32) -> T;
    fn iter<F>(&self, F) where F: Fn(T);
}
#}

Associated functions may lack a self argument, sometimes called 'static methods'. This means that they can only be called with function call syntax (f(x)) and not method call syntax (obj.f()). The way to refer to the name of a static method is to qualify it with the trait name or type name, treating the trait name like a module. For example:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Num {
    fn from_i32(n: i32) -> Self;
}
impl Num for f64 {
    fn from_i32(n: i32) -> f64 { n as f64 }
}
let x: f64 = Num::from_i32(42);
let x: f64 = f64::from_i32(42);
#}

Associated Types

It is also possible to define associated types for a trait. Consider the following example of a Container trait. Notice how the type is available for use in the method signatures:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Container {
    type E;
    fn empty() -> Self;
    fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
}
#}

In order for a type to implement this trait, it must not only provide implementations for every method, but it must specify the type E. Here's an implementation of Container for the standard library type Vec:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# trait Container {
#     type E;
#     fn empty() -> Self;
#     fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
# }
impl<T> Container for Vec<T> {
    type E = T;
    fn empty() -> Vec<T> { Vec::new() }
    fn insert(&mut self, x: T) { self.push(x); }
}
#}

Associated Constants

A trait can define constants like this:

trait Foo {
    const ID: i32;
}

impl Foo for i32 {
    const ID: i32 = 1;
}

fn main() {
    assert_eq!(1, i32::ID);
}

Any implementor of Foo will have to define ID. Without the definition:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Foo {
    const ID: i32;
}

impl Foo for i32 {
}
#}

gives

error: not all trait items implemented, missing: `ID` [E0046]
     impl Foo for i32 {
     }

A default value can be implemented as well:

trait Foo {
    const ID: i32 = 1;
}

impl Foo for i32 {
}

impl Foo for i64 {
    const ID: i32 = 5;
}

fn main() {
    assert_eq!(1, i32::ID);
    assert_eq!(5, i64::ID);
}

As you can see, when implementing Foo, you can leave it unimplemented, as with i32. It will then use the default value. But, as in i64, we can also add our own definition.

Associated constants don’t have to be associated with a trait. An impl block for a struct or an enum works fine too:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
struct Foo;

impl Foo {
    const FOO: u32 = 3;
}
#}

Trait bounds

Generic functions may use traits as bounds on their type parameters. This will have three effects:

• Only types that have the trait may instantiate the parameter.
• Within the generic function, the methods of the trait can be called on values that have the parameter's type. Associated types can be used in the function's signature, and associated constants can be used in expressions within the function body.
• Generic functions and types with the same or weaker bounds can use the generic type in the function body or signature.

For example:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# type Surface = i32;
# trait Shape { fn draw(&self, Surface); }
struct Figure<S: Shape>(S, S);
fn draw_twice<T: Shape>(surface: Surface, sh: T) {
    sh.draw(surface);
    sh.draw(surface);
}
fn draw_figure<U: Shape>(surface: Surface, Figure(sh1, sh2): Figure<U>) {
    sh1.draw(surface);
    draw_twice(surface, sh2); // Can call this since U: Shape
}
#}

Trait objects

Traits also define a trait object with the same name as the trait. Values of this type are created by coercing from a pointer of some specific type to a pointer of trait type. For example, &T could be coerced to &Shape if T: Shape holds (and similarly for Box<T>). This coercion can either be implicit or explicit. Here is an example of an explicit coercion:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Shape { }
impl Shape for i32 { }
let mycircle = 0i32;
let myshape: Box<Shape> = Box::new(mycircle) as Box<Shape>;
#}

The resulting value is a box containing the value that was cast, along with information that identifies the methods of the implementation that was used. Values with a trait type can have methods called on them, for any method in the trait, and can be used to instantiate type parameters that are bounded by the trait.

Supertraits

Trait bounds on Self are considered "supertraits". These are required to be acyclic. Supertraits are somewhat different from other constraints in that they affect what methods are available in the vtable when the trait is used as a trait object. Consider the following example:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Shape { fn area(&self) -> f64; }
trait Circle : Shape { fn radius(&self) -> f64; }
#}

The syntax Circle : Shape means that types that implement Circle must also have an implementation for Shape. Multiple supertraits are separated by +, trait Circle : Shape + PartialEq { }. In an implementation of Circle for a given type T, methods can refer to Shape methods, since the typechecker checks that any type with an implementation of Circle also has an implementation of Shape:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
struct Foo;

trait Shape { fn area(&self) -> f64; }
trait Circle : Shape { fn radius(&self) -> f64; }
impl Shape for Foo {
    fn area(&self) -> f64 {
        0.0
    }
}
impl Circle for Foo {
    fn radius(&self) -> f64 {
        println!("calling area: {}", self.area());

        0.0
    }
}

let c = Foo;
c.radius();
#}

In type-parameterized functions, methods of the supertrait may be called on values of subtrait-bound type parameters. Referring to the previous example of trait Circle : Shape:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# trait Shape { fn area(&self) -> f64; }
# trait Circle : Shape { fn radius(&self) -> f64; }
fn radius_times_area<T: Circle>(c: T) -> f64 {
    // `c` is both a Circle and a Shape
    c.radius() * c.area()
}
#}

Likewise, supertrait methods may also be called on trait objects.

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# trait Shape { fn area(&self) -> f64; }
# trait Circle : Shape { fn radius(&self) -> f64; }
# impl Shape for i32 { fn area(&self) -> f64 { 0.0 } }
# impl Circle for i32 { fn radius(&self) -> f64 { 0.0 } }
# let mycircle = 0i32;
let mycircle = Box::new(mycircle) as Box<Circle>;
let nonsense = mycircle.radius() * mycircle.area();
#}